Mental Health and Motivation: March 2025

31 March 2025

Prolonged Grief Disorder

Prolonged Grief Disorder: Awareness, Causes, Symptoms And Signs

“Deep grief sometimes is almost like a specific location, a coordinate on a map of time. When you are standing in that forest of sorrow, you cannot imagine that you could ever find your way to a better place. But if someone can assure you that they themselves have stood in that same place, and now have moved on, sometimes this will bring hope”― Elizabeth Gilbert

Prolonged Grief Disorder features in DSM-5-TR Mental Health and Motivation

Prolonged Grief Disorder: Diagnostic Criteria, Treatment Approaches, and Psychological Impact

Introduction

"Grief is a natural response to the loss of a loved one, but for some individuals, this emotional process becomes intense and persistent, leading to significant impairments in daily functioning. Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD), recently recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), captures this phenomenon. PGD represents a pathological response to bereavement, distinct from depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and requires specialized attention for effective treatment. This report explores the diagnostic criteria of PGD, its psychological ramifications, and current treatment methodologies, highlighting the importance of clinical awareness and intervention strategies.

Diagnostic Criteria of Prolonged Grief Disorder

Prolonged Grief Disorder was formally included in the DSM-5-TR in 2022, reflecting an evolution in clinical understanding of bereavement-related psychopathology. The DSM-5-TR defines PGD as a condition that occurs following the death of someone close, where the individual experiences intense grief that lasts for at least 12 months (or 6 months in children and adolescents) and is disruptive to daily life (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2022).

Core Symptoms

The core diagnostic symptoms include:

Persistent longing or yearning for the deceased.
Intense emotional pain, including sorrow, bitterness, or anger.
Preoccupation with thoughts of the deceased or circumstances of the death.
Difficulty engaging in social or occupational activities due to grief.
Feelings of meaninglessness or identity disturbance.

To meet the diagnostic threshold, the individual must exhibit at least three out of eight defined cognitive, emotional, or behavioral symptoms in addition to the core grief criteria (APA, 2022).

Differentiation from Other Disorders

It is crucial to distinguish PGD from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and PTSD. While MDD is characterized by a pervasive low mood and lack of interest, PGD is rooted in attachment and the intense yearning for the lost individual. PTSD often follows traumatic events and includes hypervigilance, flashbacks, and avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, whereas PGD centers on the personal meaning of the loss (Boelen & Lenferink, 2020).

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Studies estimate that 5–10% of bereaved individuals develop PGD (Prigerson et al., 2009). Risk factors include:

Sudden or violent deaths.
Loss of a child or spouse.
Previous history of mental health conditions.
Lack of social support.

Cultural and individual differences also influence grief expression and the likelihood of developing PGD. Hence, culturally sensitive assessments are vital (Killikelly & Maercker, 2017).

Psychological Impact of Prolonged Grief Disorder

PGD significantly disrupts mental, emotional, and social functioning. The persistence and intensity of symptoms often leave individuals trapped in their grief, unable to integrate the loss into their life narrative.

Mental Health Implications

PGD is associated with a heightened risk of:

Depression and anxiety: Comorbidity rates are high, and individuals may exhibit suicidal ideation.
Substance use: Some turn to alcohol or drugs as a maladaptive coping strategy (Lannen et al., 2008).
Sleep disturbances: Insomnia and nightmares are frequently reported (Hardison et al., 2005).

A study by Shear et al. (2011) found that individuals with PGD exhibit altered brain activity, especially in the nucleus accumbens, which is linked to reward processing and attachment. This neural response suggests that prolonged grief might involve addiction-like mechanisms to memories of the deceased.

Functional Impairment

People with PGD often find it difficult to maintain employment, care for others, or engage in previously enjoyable activities. They may socially withdraw, exacerbating isolation and prolonging distress (Simon et al., 2007). For children and adolescents, PGD can lead to academic failure and developmental delays (Melhem et al., 2011)

Physical Health Correlates

PGD can lead to poor physical health outcomes, including:

Weakened immune functioning.
Cardiovascular problems.
Increased mortality risk, especially in older adults (Stroebe et al., 2007).

These effects highlight that PGD is not just a mental health issue but a whole-person condition with systemic consequences.

Treatment Approaches for Prolonged Grief Disorder

Effective treatment of PGD is crucial for restoring well-being and functionality. While no universal treatment fits all, several evidence-based approaches have been developed, including psychotherapeutic and pharmacological interventions.

Complicated Grief Therapy (CGT)

Developed by Shear et al. (2005), Complicated Grief Therapy is a manualized, targeted form of psychotherapy combining cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal, and attachment-based strategies. CGT encourages patients to confront painful memories, re-engage with life goals, and process the reality of the loss.

A randomized controlled trial by Shear et al. (2005) demonstrated that CGT was significantly more effective than traditional interpersonal psychotherapy, leading to greater symptom reduction and functional improvement.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT adapted for grief focuses on identifying and challenging maladaptive thoughts, such as self-blame or catastrophizing. It often includes:

Exposure therapy to memories of the deceased.
Cognitive restructuring of irrational beliefs.
Behavioral activation to promote re-engagement with life.

Boelen et al. (2007) found that CBT significantly reduced PGD symptoms in a clinical population, suggesting its applicability across settings.

Pharmacological Interventions

While medications are not the frontline treatment, antidepressants such as SSRIs may alleviate comorbid depression or anxiety, making psychological treatment more effective. However, there is limited evidence that medications alone can resolve PGD symptoms (Zisook et al., 2010).

Group Therapy and Peer Support

Support groups offer shared experiences, emotional validation, and communal healing. These can be especially beneficial for those who lack familial or social support (Neimeyer et al., 2014).

Emerging Therapies

Recent explorations include:

Mindfulness-based interventions: Useful for enhancing emotional regulation.
EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing): Promising results in grief tied to traumatic death.
Somatic therapies: Address the bodily component of grief through physical awareness and movement.

Challenges in Diagnosis and Treatment

Cultural Considerations

Grief norms vary significantly across cultures. What may be considered pathological in one society may be normal in another. For example, prolonged mourning is accepted in some Eastern cultures as a sign of respect (Rosenblatt, 2008). Clinicians must be culturally competent to avoid misdiagnosis.

Stigma and Recognition

Many individuals suffering from PGD do not seek help due to stigma or because they believe their symptoms are "normal." Raising public awareness and training healthcare providers is essential to improving early detection and intervention (Lichtenthal et al., 2022).

Barriers to Access

Limited mental health resources, especially in rural or underserved areas, hinder access to evidence-based care. Teletherapy and community health models may help bridge this gap.

Conclusion

Prolonged Grief Disorder is a debilitating condition that impacts every aspect of a person’s life—emotionally, cognitively, physically, and socially. With its inclusion in the DSM-5-TR, PGD has gained long-overdue recognition as a legitimate mental health condition requiring specialized care. Accurate diagnosis, culturally sensitive assessment, and access to effective treatment modalities such as CGT and CBT are vital for supporting those affected. As our understanding of grief evolves, so must our compassion and commitment to helping individuals navigate one of life’s most profound experiences—the loss of a loved one." (ChatGPT 2025)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.; DSM-5-TR). American Psychiatric Publishing.

Boelen, P. A., de Keijser, J., van den Hout, M. A., & van den Bout, J. (2007). Treatment of complicated grief: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(2), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.2.277

Boelen, P. A., & Lenferink, L. I. (2020). Symptoms of prolonged grief, posttraumatic stress, and depression in recently bereaved people: Symptom profiles, predictive factors, and correlates. Journal of Affective Disorders, 277, 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.041

Hardison, H. G., Neimeyer, R. A., & Lichstein, K. L. (2005). Insomnia and complicated grief symptoms in bereaved college students. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 3(2), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15402010bsm0302_3

Killikelly, C., & Maercker, A. (2017). Prolonged grief disorder for ICD-11: The primacy of clinical utility and international applicability. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(sup6), 1476441. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1476441

Lannen, P. K., Wolfe, J., Prigerson, H. G., Onelov, E., & Kreicbergs, U. C. (2008). Unresolved grief in a national sample of bereaved parents: Impaired mental and physical health 4 to 9 years later. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 26(36), 5870–5876. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2007.14.6738

Lichtenthal, W. G., Prigerson, H. G., Currier, J. M., Neimeyer, R. A., & Keesee, N. J. (2022). The need for evidence-based grief care. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(2), 91–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00347-0

Melhem, N. M., Porta, G., Payne, M. W., & Brent, D. A. (2011). Identifying prolonged grief reactions in children: Psychometric properties of the prolonged grief disorder checklist. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 20(4), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.354

Neimeyer, R. A., Harris, D., Winokuer, H. R., & Thornton, G. F. (2014). Grief and bereavement in contemporary society: Bridging research and practice. Routledge.

Prigerson, H. G., Horowitz, M. J., Jacobs, S. C., et al. (2009). Prolonged grief disorder: Psychometric validation of criteria proposed for DSM-V and ICD-11. PLoS Medicine, 6(8), e1000121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000121

Rosenblatt, P. C. (2008). Recovery following bereavement: Metaphor, phenomenology, and culture. Death Studies, 32(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180801972208

Shear, M. K., Frank, E., Houck, P. R., & Reynolds III, C. F. (2005). Treatment of complicated grief: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 293(21), 2601–2608. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.21.2601

Shear, M. K., et al. (2011). An attachment-based model of complicated grief including the role of avoidance. Depression and Anxiety, 28(2), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20770

Simon, N. M., Shear, K. M., Thompson, E. H., et al. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in individuals with complicated grief. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48(5), 395–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.05.001

Stroebe, M., Schut, H., & Stroebe, W. (2007). Health outcomes of bereavement. The Lancet, 370(9603), 1960–1973. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61816-9

Zisook, S., Corruble, E., Duan, N., & Kasckow, J. W. (2010). The use of antidepressants in the treatment of prolonged grief disorder. CNS Drugs, 24(9), 729–739. https://doi.org/10.2165/11536510-000000000-00000

Additional Prolonged Grief Disorder Resources

Complicated Grief: Epidemiology, Clinical Features, Assessment and Diagnosis PDF Download

Complicated Grief, Symptoms and Causes Mayo Clinic

DSM-5-TR turns Normal Grief into a Mental Disorder The Lancet Psychiatry

Diagnostic and Clinical Considerations in Prolonged Grief Disorder NIH

Diagnosis of Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) Oxford Academic

Grief Counseling: How It Works, Benefits And More Forbes

Grief and Mourning gone awry: Pathway and Course of Complicated Grief Taylor & Francis

The Five Stages of Grief: An Examination of the Kubler-Ross Model PSYCOM

How to spot the Red Flags of Complicated Grief Disorder White River Manor

Grief: Different Reactions and Timelines in the Aftermath of Loss US Department of Veterans Affairs

New Paths for people with Prolonged Grief Disorder American Psychological Association

Management of Bereavement and Grief in Adults UpToDate

Predictors of Prolonged Grief Disorder in a German Representative Population Sample: Unexpectedness of Bereavement Contributes to Grief Severity and Prolonged Grief Disorder Frontiers in Psychiatry

Prolonged Grief as a Disease? Springer Link

'Prolonged Grief Disorder' Is Now an Official Mental Health Condition - These Are the Symptoms to Know Health

“Prolonged Grief Disorder” and “persistent Complex bereavement Disorder”, but not “Complicated Grief”, are one and the same Diagnostic Entity: An Analysis of data from the Yale Bereavement Study World Psychiatry

Prolonged Grief Disorder: Mental Health Experts Identify the Signs Healthline

Prolonged Grief Disorder in ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR: Challenges and controversies NIH

Prolonged Grief Disorder in Adults: Treatment UpToDate

The Profound Sadness of Prolonged Grief Harvard Medicine

The Columbia Center for Complicated Grief Center Columbia University

Treating Complicated Grief Open Arms

Uncomplicated Bereavement & Prolonged Grief Disorder DSM-5 : Causes, Symptoms, Treatment Thrive Works

When Grief Gets Stuck: Information & Resources on Complicated Grief John Bristol Therapy

What Distinguishes Prolonged Grief Disorder from Depression? TidtssKriftet

What Is Prolonged Grief Disorder? WebMD

What is Complicated Grief? A Short Introduction - Video

🎓 Mental Health, Psychology and Relationship Resources

Vernon Chalmers' Interpretation of BPD and NPD

Independent Report: Vernon Chalmers' Interpretation / Study of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) Compared to Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD).

Vernon Chalmers' Interpretation / Comparisons of BPD and NPD

Index:

Introduction
Human Ethology
Diagnostic Features
Comparison: BPD and NPD
Treatment Considerations
Conclusion
Works Cited / References
Report Compiler

1. Introduction

"This report focuses on Vernon Chalmers' interpretations of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), drawing from his website "Mental Health and Motivation" and his stated influences. Chalmers, with over 15 years of research experience in Cluster B personality disorders, particularly admires the work of Drs. John Gunderson and Otto Kernberg, who associated symptoms of both BPD and NPD with childhood abuse and trauma 1. This admiration suggests a significant psychodynamic influence on his understanding of these disorders.

2. Human Ethology

Chalmers' perspective on the origins of both BPD and NPD appears to align with the theories of Gunderson and Kernberg, emphasizing the role of early childhood experiences. He notes their historical contributions in linking many symptoms of BPD and NPD to childhood abuse and trauma 1. This suggests that Chalmers likely believes that disruptions in early attachment and adverse experiences during childhood are significant contributing factors to the development of both disorders. His personal experience within an adult abusive relationship might further inform his understanding of the relational dynamics involved in these disorders, particularly NPD 2.

3. Diagnostic Features

While the research material doesn't provide explicit details on Chalmers' interpretation of every specific symptom, his alignment with Gunderson and Kernberg offers insights into how he might understand the core features of BPD and NPD. Detailed BDP and NPD symptomatic identifications and diagnostic criteria are specified in the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5-TR as the most comprehensive, current, and critical resource for clinical practice available to today's mental health clinicians and researchers 9.

For Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), the key diagnostic criteria include frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships, identity disturbance, impulsivity, suicidal behavior, affective instability, chronic feelings of emptiness, inappropriate anger, and transient paranoid ideation 4. Chalmers, following Gunderson and Kernberg, would likely interpret these symptoms as maladaptive coping mechanisms stemming from early relational trauma and difficulties in forming stable attachments. The intense fear of abandonment and unstable relationships, for instance, could be seen as a result of inconsistent or traumatic early caregiving experiences.

For Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), the primary features involve a grandiose sense of self-importance, a need for excessive admiration, a lack of empathy, and a sense of entitlement 5.

Chalmers' likely psychodynamic perspective, again influenced by Gunderson and Kernberg, would suggest that these traits develop as defences against underlying feelings of inadequacy or vulnerability rooted in early childhood. The grandiosity and need for admiration might be seen as compensatory mechanisms to mask a fragile sense of self, potentially arising from experiences of either excessive idealization or neglect in childhood. His personal experience with "unacceptable psychopathological behavioural manifestations", potentially narcissistic traits in his abuser, might give him a deeper understanding of the impact of these features on others 2.

4, Comparison: BPD and NPD

While both BPD and NPD are believed by Chalmers, through the lens of Gunderson and Kernberg, to have roots in early childhood trauma, their manifestations differ significantly. Individuals with BPD often exhibit intense emotional dysregulation, unstable relationships characterized by idealization and devaluation, and a fear of abandonment. In contrast, NPD is characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, a lack of empathy, and a need for admiration.

Chalmers' perspective, influenced by psychodynamic theory, likely views the core issues in BPD as revolving around difficulties with attachment and emotional regulation stemming from early relational experiences. For NPD, the focus is likely on a disturbance in the sense of self, with grandiosity and lack of empathy serving as defences against underlying vulnerabilities that also originate in early childhood.

5. Treatment Considerations

The provided research material does not contain specific information on Vernon Chalmers' views regarding the treatment of BPD or NPD. However, given his psychodynamic leanings, it can be inferred that he might favor therapeutic approaches that explore early relational patterns and promote insight into the origins of their difficulties. Mainstream treatments for BPD, such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) and Mentalization-Based Therapy (MBT) 7, and psychodynamic approaches for NPD often aim to address these underlying issues of attachment, emotional regulation, and self-perception.

6. Conclusion

Vernon Chalmers' interpretations of BPD and NPD are significantly shaped by the psychodynamic theories of Gunderson and Kernberg, emphasizing the profound impact of early childhood trauma on the development of these disorders. While both are linked to adverse early experiences, BPD manifests with emotional instability and relational difficulties, whereas NPD presents with grandiosity and a lack of empathy. Chalmers' personal experiences may further enrich his understanding of the interpersonal impact of these conditions."

7. Works cited / References

1. Mental Health and Motivation 2025, accessed March 23, 2025, https://www.mylifereflections.net/2024/09/mental-health-and-motivation.html

2. About - Mental Health and Motivation, accessed March 23, 2025, https://www.mylifereflections.net/p/about.html

3. 2021 - Mental Health and Motivation, accessed March 23, 2025, https://www.mylifereflections.net/2021/

4. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder - PubMed Central, accessed March 23, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6491076/

5. Expectancy biases and the Dark Triad traits: Longitudinal associations with subjective well-being and social and moral values C, accessed March 23, 2025, https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/633448/1/Chris_Williams_PhD.pdf

6. Publiphilia Impactfactorius: a new psychiatric syndrome among biomedical scientists?, accessed March 23, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345666004_Publiphilia_Impactfactorius_a_new_psychiatric_syndrome_among_biomedical_scientists

7. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder - PubMed Central, accessed March 23, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481907/

8. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder - PubMed Central, accessed March 23, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7199382/

9. Purpose and Usage of the DSM-5-TR™, accessed March 23, 2025, https://www.mylifereflections.net/2024/08/purpose-and-usage-of-dsm-5-tr.html

8. Report Compiler: Google Gemini (Deep Research)

🎓 Mental Health, Psychology and Relationship Resources

The Positive Effect of Photography on Mental Health

Photography holds Immense Potential as Support for Enhancing Mental Health and Emotional Well-Being

Photography in Nature Cabbage Butterfly : Kirstenbosch Garden , Cape Town

Abstract

"Photography, a ubiquitous aspect of modern life, has evolved from a mere means of documentation into a powerful tool for personal expression, mindfulness, and therapeutic healing. With the proliferation of smartphones and digital cameras, photography is more accessible than ever and has increasingly been linked to improvements in mental well-being. This report explores the multifaceted relationship between photography and mental health, examining how photography influences emotional regulation, self-expression, identity formation, mindfulness, and social connectedness. It also investigates the growing field of therapeutic photography and photo therapy as interventions for psychological distress. The findings suggest that photography can have profound benefits for individuals experiencing mental health challenges and may serve as an effective complementary practice in mental healthcare.

Index:

Introduction
Photography as Emotional Expression and Regulation
Therapeutic Photography and Photo Therapy
Identity Formation and Self-Esteem
Social Connection and Communication
Photography as a Coping Mechanism in Grief and Trauma
Limitations and Ethical Considerations
Conclusion
References
Report Compiler

1. Introduction

In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in the intersection between creative practices and mental health. Among these practices, photography stands out for its accessibility, versatility, and potential to impact individuals emotionally and psychologically. As both a professional art form and a casual hobby, photography has shown promise as a therapeutic outlet and a way of improving emotional well-being (Weiser, 2010). The purpose of this report is to explore the general effects of photography on mental health, drawing from psychological research, therapeutic models, and case studies.

2. Photography as Emotional Expression and Regulation

Identity Formation and Self-Esteem

One of the most significant benefits of photography for mental health lies in its ability to facilitate emotional expression. Photography allows individuals to externalize their emotions in a visual form, creating space for reflection and processing of difficult experiences. This visual articulation of emotion can lead to catharsis and emotional regulation, particularly in individuals who struggle to express their feelings verbally (Ginicola et al., 2012).
Photographic self-expression has also been found to promote a deeper understanding of one’s internal state. For example, adolescents who engage in photo journaling or social media photo sharing often use photography to navigate complex emotional landscapes and identity issues (McKay et al., 2020). In therapeutic contexts, this process may help clients articulate trauma or grief in a nonverbal yet profoundly meaningful way (Weiser, 2010)

Photography in Nature Wee Waxbill : Kirstenbosch Garden

Photography and Mindfulness

Photography can also foster mindfulness—a mental state characterized by focused awareness and presence in the moment. The act of taking photographs often requires attentiveness to detail, light, composition, and the surrounding environment. This intentional focus can reduce rumination and anxiety, promoting relaxation and clarity (Brown et al., 2014).
Mindfulness-based photography practices, such as contemplative photography (also known as "Miksang"), encourage individuals to engage with their surroundings in a calm and reflective manner. Such practices align with the principles of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), which has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). By encouraging participants to observe their environment and emotions without judgment, photography becomes a vehicle for present-moment awareness and emotional grounding.

3. Therapeutic Photography and Photo Therapy

Therapeutic photography and photo therapy are structured practices that use photographic processes to achieve therapeutic goals. While similar, these two approaches differ in their application. Therapeutic photography refers to self-initiated photo practices used for personal healing, often outside of a clinical setting. In contrast, photo therapy involves the guided use of photography in psychotherapy sessions under the direction of a trained therapist (Weiser, 2010).

Studies have shown that therapeutic photography can be beneficial for individuals experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and chronic illness (Ginicola et al., 2012). For example, cancer patients participating in photo narrative projects reported increased emotional resilience and a sense of agency over their health journey (Chalfen, 2011). In photo therapy, clients may explore family albums, create self-portraits, or photograph meaningful objects, all of which help to unlock memories and promote self-exploration.

Photography in Nature Red Wildflower : Kirstenbosch Garden

4. Identity Formation and Self-Esteem

Photography plays a central role in identity development, particularly in youth and marginalized populations. By capturing and curating images, individuals engage in acts of self-representation that reinforce or challenge their identity narratives (Kindon, 2012). This process can enhance self-esteem and foster a sense of control, particularly for those who feel silenced or disempowered.

In social media contexts, photography also allows for identity performance and social validation. While this can have both positive and negative effects depending on usage patterns, studies suggest that posting photographs with positive self-representations can boost self-worth and confidence (Lee et al., 2021). This is especially true when the photos are shared in supportive online communities or therapeutic groups.

5. Social Connection and Communication

Photography has a unique capacity to foster social connection. Sharing images—whether on social media, in family albums, or through art exhibits—facilitates communication and empathy between individuals. This is particularly beneficial for individuals experiencing loneliness, social isolation, or communicative barriers due to trauma or disability (Berman et al., 2008).

Group photography programs have been used successfully in community mental health initiatives to build trust, mutual understanding, and peer support. For instance, participatory photography projects such as “PhotoVoice” empower individuals from marginalized communities to share their stories visually, promoting social change and reducing stigma (Wang & Burris, 1997). These projects help participants realize that they are not alone in their struggles, which can be a powerful antidote to feelings of alienation.

6. Photography as a Coping Mechanism in Grief and Trauma

Photography has also emerged as a valuable coping tool for individuals experiencing grief or trauma. Creating or revisiting photographs of lost loved ones can be an important part of the grieving process, offering a tangible connection to the deceased (Richards, 2003). Meanwhile, trauma survivors often use photography to process and reframe their experiences, turning passive memories into active narratives of survival and strength (Kindon, 2012).

Programs involving trauma-informed photography have been used in refugee populations, veterans, and abuse survivors to help process complex emotional experiences. These interventions are often based on narrative therapy and expressive arts frameworks, and have been associated with reductions in anxiety and increased self-efficacy (Hatten et al., 2013).

Photography in Nature : Dragon Fly at Kirstenbosch Garden

7. Limitations and Ethical Considerations

Despite its many benefits, photography can also have adverse effects on mental health, particularly in the context of excessive social media use. Constant comparison to idealized images, obsession with appearance, and cyberbullying are among the risks that can lead to anxiety, low self-esteem, and depression (Meier & Gray, 2014). Moreover, therapeutic photography practices must be approached sensitively to avoid retraumatizing individuals or violating their privacy and consent.

It is crucial for practitioners and researchers to be aware of cultural, ethical, and personal boundaries when implementing photography-based interventions. Consent, confidentiality, and participant agency should be prioritized, especially when images are shared publicly or in therapeutic settings.

8. Conclusion

Photography holds immense potential as a tool for enhancing mental health and emotional well-being. From fostering mindfulness and emotional expression to building social connections and aiding in trauma recovery, photography can be both personally transformative and therapeutically effective. As interest in holistic and creative mental health interventions continues to grow, photography offers an accessible and powerful medium through which individuals can explore, understand, and heal their inner worlds. Further research and clinical application will help solidify photography’s place in the broader landscape of mental health support."

9. References

Berman, H., Ford-Gilboe, M., Moutrey, B., & Cekic, S. (2008). Portraits of pain and promise: A photo-essay on girls' experiences of family violence. Violence Against Women, 14(9), 1035–1059. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208322706

Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2014). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298

Chalfen, R. (2011). Differentiating uses of photography in visual research: The case of photovoice and photo-elicitation. Visual Studies, 26(2), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/1472586X.2011.571888

Ginicola, M. M., Smith, C., & Trzaska, J. (2012). Counseling through images: Using photography to facilitate emotional expression. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 7(4), 310–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2012.724362

Hatten, K., Forinash, M., & Walworth, D. D. (2013). Trauma and expressive arts therapy. Arts in Psychotherapy, 40(3), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2013.03.002

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bpg016

Kindon, S. (2012). Participatory photography as a method in visual research. In E. Margolis & L. Pauwels (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods (pp. 427–450). SAGE Publications.

Lee, J. A., Chae, Y. G., & Lee, S. Y. (2021). The role of self-presentation motivation and perceived social support on Instagram in users’ positive self-view and self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 121, 106803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106803

McKay, M. T., Percy, A., & Cole, J. C. (2020). The impact of photo-sharing and commenting on social network sites on adolescent self-esteem: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 84, 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.08.001

10. Report Compiler: CHATGPT 2025

Images: Vernon Chalmers Photography (Kirstenbosch Garden)

🎓 Mental Health, Psychology and Relationship Resources

How I started Share Trading on the JSE...

How I started Share Trading on the JSE... Awareness and Journey

"Never stop learning, it is a gift that will always reward you..." - Vernon Chalmers

Herewith an extract of the learning / motivation that started a 20-year personal interest in share and derivatives trading on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE):

“I have been investing in shares and trading derivatives for more than 20 years. In the beginning I invested through the traditional paper-based stockbroker system (up to the early 2000's) and after the introduction of online share trading I started trading via an online JSE-accredited and direct-linked trading platform.

It all started in the beginning of a semester lecturing my first Economics class during the mid-1990's when a student asked me to explain a particular 'financial theory of stock market investment decision-making and risk management' in more practical terms. That same afternoon I phoned a local stockbroker and placed an order for my first share trading transaction. For the rest of the year we analysed and tracked the company's share performance on the JSE.

It was a thorough hands-on learning experience with and through my students. I nostalgically retained the shares for many years as I curated and developed my first share portfolio.“ (Vernon Chalmers)

‘From Analytical Education to Creative Training’ – as published on my Mental Health and Motivation website.

Image: Copyright-free 'Technical Analysis' display (Pixabay)

Article Source: Mental Health and Motivation 'From Analytical Education to Creative Training'

Financial Fear and Greed Impact on Mental Health

In stock market investment and trading via Technical Analysis (TA) we [also] apply the guidance of the ‘Fear and Greed Index’ to assist in determining the ‘absolute - probable correct time’ to buy or sell a specific company's shares / derivatives. This is a psychological / financial human behaviour indicator in deciding when a share is overbought or oversold (collectively).

Buying an oversold share / or selling an overbought share (in any transaction) could at times be challenging decisions and TA is only guidance (of various previous movements / transactions) to assist the trained and or experienced investor / trader.

Some of these decisions are at times executed too early, too late or not at all - which could lead to unexpected (leveraged) financial loss - especially for the inexperienced investor / trader.
Regular losses can add to high-functioning anxiety (and / or prolonged stress) should the share / derivate maintain its current position (against the original decision taken) - and not change as indicated or 'forecasted' during TA. Especially if it is a frequent occurrence (with various companies) / or when the market keeps on moving in the opposite direction for unexpected periods. Especially for the inexperienced shorter-term derivatives trader.

For minimising this risk we also use Fundamental Analysis (FA) where overall macro market, specific corporate / industry metrics and other strategic financial management indicators of a company are evaluated in support of TA. FA information is freely available from any stock exchange listed company's website under Investment Relations (as prerequisite of a listed public company on any stock exchange i.e. JSE), various required publicly available corporate media releases and public financial analyst media reporting.

Fear leads to Greed / or Greed leads to Fear, hence a major reason or decision why a particular share is bought or sold - collectively wrt the TA at a specific time. The (perpetual) outcome of the collective market decision-making is dynamically replicated in real-time analytics.

This objective / quantitative data is an effective analytical indicator for evaluating the collective psychological sentiment of buyers / sellers (of a particular share / derivatives as it is bought / sold in real-time).

This efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) interpretation is based on the collective action (and share price) - note: there could be other underlying reasons why particular individuals / institutions are buying or selling a specific company's shares / derivatives at that particular time. The overall collective buying / selling statistics could be in the moment, day, week, month(s) or year(s) - depending on the applied investment / trading strategy at the time.

Considering application of EMH theory (with all available corporate / financial information factored in) the dynamic market / price statistics depicts the 'fear and greed' mind-set / sentiment of the median (average) of the market collective (at a particular day / time) who is buying or selling a particular company’s shares.

Proper TA (and FA) due diligence not only reduces the financial risk (in providing more up-to-date information) in investment / trading (derivatives) decision-making, but also offers insight(s) into a holistic approach towards the psychological (personal and or institutional buyers / sellers) financial decisions at a specific time. (Vernon Chalmers for the Mental Health and Motivation website)

© Vernon Chalmers : Mental Health and Motivation (JSE Investment and Trading)

Vernon Chalmers JSE / Trading Update

"Vernon Chalmers provides a unique synthesis of psychology and financial decision-making, especially within the context of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. His background in education, systems thinking, and behavioral observation equips him to view trading not merely as a numbers game, but as a psychological journey. Through his emphasis on emotional regulation, cognitive awareness, and continuous learning, Chalmers exemplifies how psychological mastery can enhance trading performance.

In a market driven by uncertainty, the trader’s most powerful tools may not be found in charts or data feeds, but in their own mind. As Chalmers’ insights suggest, success on the JSE - or any financial exchange - requires not just analytical skill, but a disciplined and emotionally intelligent mindset." (Source: ChatGPT 2025)

More: Fear and Greed in Financial Markets

Read More: Financial Fear and Greed Impact on Mental Health

The Relevance of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Its Relevance in Contemporary Psychology

Index:

Introduction: Freud's Psychodynamic Approach to Psychology
Primary Motivators of Human Behavior
Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche
Theory of Psychosexual Development
Examples of Ego Defense Mechanisms
Schools of Psychodynamic Thought
Modern Psychoanalytic Therapy
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Criticisms and Limitations
Other Psychological Approaches
Conclusion: Foundational Framework in Psychology History
Works / References Cited
Report Compiler
Disclaimer

1. Introduction: Freud's Psychodynamic Approach to Psychology

"Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist who lived from 1856 to 1939, is widely regarded as the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology 1. His psychoanalytic theory, first developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, revolutionized the understanding of the human mind and its influence on behavior 2. Prior to Freud's work, the prevailing focus in psychology was largely on conscious thought and observable behavior. Freud's groundbreaking contribution was to emphasize the profound role of unconscious psychological processes in shaping human experience and action 2. This paradigm shift not only transformed the landscape of psychology but also had a lasting impact on various related disciplines and popular culture. This report aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of Freud's psychoanalytic theory, encompassing its core principles, key concepts, developmental stages, defense mechanisms, historical impact, contemporary relevance, major criticisms, and modern adaptations. By examining these facets, the report seeks to offer a thorough and nuanced understanding of this foundational theory and its enduring significance in the field of psychology.

At the heart of psychoanalytic theory lies the fundamental principle that human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by unconscious psychological forces 3. These unconscious drives, often rooted in early childhood experiences, exert a powerful influence on our thoughts, feelings, and actions, frequently without our conscious awareness 4. Freud posited that the mind is not merely a collection of conscious thoughts but rather a complex structure with a significant portion operating beyond the realm of immediate awareness 1. This unconscious mind serves as a vast reservoir for repressed thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories that, despite being inaccessible to ordinary introspection, continue to shape our behavior in profound ways 2. Freud likened the mind to an iceberg, with the conscious mind representing the small visible tip and the unconscious mind forming the much larger, submerged portion 7.

2. Primary Motivators of Human Behavior

Furthermore, Freud introduced the concept of fundamental instincts as primary motivators of human behavior 7. He proposed two main categories of instincts: the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos) 5. The life instinct encompasses drives related to survival, reproduction, and pleasure, including basic needs such as hunger, thirst, and sex, as well as the desire for love and connection 7. In contrast, the death instinct represents an unconscious wish for death and is expressed through destructive, aggressive, and violent behaviors, although Freud believed these were largely tempered by the life instincts 5. The interplay between these fundamental instincts and the ways in which they are managed by the psyche are central to psychoanalytic theory 12.

As a therapeutic approach, the primary aim of psychoanalysis is to bring these unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions into conscious awareness 1. Freud believed that by making the unconscious conscious, individuals could gain insight into the root causes of their psychological distress and achieve emotional release, or catharsis, leading to healing and self-understanding 1. This process typically involves exploring the patient's thoughts, dreams, and feelings through techniques like free association and dream interpretation, with the goal of uncovering the hidden motivations and unresolved conflicts that underlie their symptoms 5.

3. Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche

To further understand the dynamics of the mind, Freud developed a structural model of the psyche, comprising three distinct but interacting components: the id, the ego, and the superego 1. The id, the most primitive and instinctual part of the mind, is present from birth and operates entirely in the unconscious 16. It is driven by the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs 16. The id is the source of all psychic energy, or libido, and encompasses basic urges such as hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression 16. To fulfill these needs, the id employs primary process thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object to satisfy the immediate urge 16. For instance, a hungry infant might mentally imagine food to temporarily alleviate its distress 16.

The ego, in contrast, is the rational part of the personality that develops from the id during infancy 16. It operates on the reality principle, mediating between the unrealistic demands of the id and the constraints of the external world in a socially acceptable manner 15. The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind, acting as a filter for the id's impulses 16. It employs secondary process thinking, which involves finding real-world objects that match the mental images created by the id, thus devising realistic strategies to satisfy needs 16. The ego is responsible for the development of crucial skills such as impulse control, perception, evaluation, and judgment, enabling individuals to function effectively in the world 19. Freud used the analogy of a horse and rider to illustrate the relationship between the id (the powerful horse) and the ego (the rider who guides and controls the horse's movements) 1. The ego's ability to navigate these competing forces is referred to as ego strength, and a healthy personality is characterized by a strong ego that can effectively balance these demands 16.

The final component of Freud's structural model is the superego, which represents the moralistic aspect of personality 16. It develops around the age of four or five as children internalize the morals, values, and ideals of society learned from their parents, family, and culture 1. The superego operates on the morality principle, striving for perfection and enforcing moral standards, often inducing feelings of guilt or shame when these standards are violated 8. It acts as the individual's conscience, providing a sense of right and wrong and inhibiting socially unacceptable behaviors driven by the id 1. The superego is comprised of two parts: the conscience, which contains internalized societal rules and prohibitions, and the ego ideal, which encompasses the individual's standards for ideal behavior and aspirations 1. The superego attempts to suppress the id's unacceptable urges and persuade the ego to act on idealistic rather than simply realistic principles 16.

The ongoing interaction between the id, ego, and superego is central to understanding personality and behavior 15. The id constantly seeks immediate gratification, the superego demands moral perfection, and the ego strives to find a realistic balance between these competing forces and the constraints of the external world 15. When the ego effectively mediates these demands, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges 16. However, an imbalance among these components can lead to internal conflict and the development of maladaptive personality traits and psychological difficulties 16. For instance, an overly dominant id might result in impulsive and selfish behavior, while an overly strict superego could lead to excessive guilt and self-criticism 20.

4. Theory of Psychosexual Development

Freud also proposed a comprehensive theory of psychosexual development, suggesting that personality develops through a series of five distinct stages, each characterized by a specific erogenous zone that serves as the primary source of pleasure 7. These stages are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages 22. According to Freud, psychosexual energy, or libido, is the driving force behind behavior, and successful completion of each stage is crucial for healthy personality development 22. Unresolved conflicts at any stage can lead to fixation, where an individual becomes "stuck" at that particular point of development, potentially influencing their adult personality and behavior 8.

The first stage, the oral stage (birth to 1 year), centers on the infant's mouth as the primary source of interaction and pleasure, derived from activities such as sucking, biting, and feeding 7. Freud believed that inadequate or excessive gratification during this stage could lead to oral fixations in adulthood, such as smoking, overeating, nail-biting, or excessive talking 11.

The anal stage (1 to 3 years) focuses on the anus and the control of bowel and bladder movements, particularly during toilet training 7. Freud suggested that how parents approach toilet training can influence personality development, potentially leading to anal-retentive personalities (obsessively orderly, neat, and controlling) if training is too strict or early, or anal-expulsive personalities (messy, disorganized, and rebellious) if training is too lenient 22.

The phallic stage (3 to 6 years) is characterized by the child's focus on the genitals and the discovery of sexual differences 3. This stage is marked by the development of the Oedipus complex in boys, involving an unconscious sexual desire for the mother and feelings of rivalry towards the father, and the Electra complex in girls, involving a similar attraction to the father and rivalry with the mother 3. Resolution of these complexes through identification with the same-sex parent is considered crucial for the development of the superego and gender identity 11. Unresolved conflicts in this stage can potentially lead to issues with sexuality and gender identity later in life 11.

During the latency stage (6 years to puberty), sexual feelings become relatively dormant or repressed, and the child's focus shifts to social, intellectual, and skill development 7. Freud believed this stage is important for the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence 22. Fixation at this stage may result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult 22.

The final stage, the genital stage (puberty onwards), marks the reawakening of sexual urges and the maturation of sexual interests 7. The focus shifts towards the development of healthy, consensual sexual and romantic relationships 11. According to Freud, success in this stage is dependent on the successful resolution of conflicts in the earlier psychosexual stages 7.

To protect the ego from the anxiety arising from conflicts between the id, ego, and superego, or from external reality, Freud proposed the existence of ego defense mechanisms 3. These are unconscious psychological strategies that distort reality to reduce anxiety and maintain a sense of psychological equilibrium 29. While defense mechanisms can be adaptive in the short term, their habitual use can hinder the ability to cope effectively with life's challenges 31.

5. Examples of Ego Defense Mechanisms

Defense Mechanism	Brief Definition	Illustrative Example
Repression	Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts or memories from awareness.	Forgetting traumatic childhood events 30.
Denial	Refusing to accept reality or facts.	A person refusing to believe they have a serious illness 30.
Projection	Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person.	Someone who is jealous accusing their partner of being jealous 30.
Displacement	Redirecting emotions from the original source to a less threatening target.	Getting angry at family members after a bad day at work 5.
Regression	Reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to stress.	An adult sucking their thumb when under extreme stress 30.
Sublimation	Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.	Channeling aggression into competitive sports 29.
Rationalization	Creating seemingly logical explanations to justify unacceptable thoughts or behaviors.	Blaming a failed exam on the teacher rather than lack of preparation 30.
Reaction Formation	Behaving in a way that is the opposite of one's true feelings.	Being overly kind to someone you dislike intensely 29.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory has had a profound and enduring impact on the field of psychology and beyond 2. It fundamentally reshaped the understanding of the human mind, shifting the focus from conscious to unconscious processes and emphasizing the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality 2. His work laid the foundation for the development of psychology as a distinct discipline, influencing early research and theoretical frameworks 2. In psychiatry, psychoanalysis revolutionized the understanding and treatment of mental disorders by offering psychological explanations for conditions previously attributed solely to biological factors 2. The idea that mental illness could be treated through talking and exploring the unconscious was a revolutionary concept that left a lasting mark on therapeutic approaches 2.

6. Schools of Psychodynamic Thought

Psychoanalytic theory also served as the bedrock for various subsequent schools of psychodynamic thought, including ego psychology, object relations theory, and interpersonal psychoanalysis, as well as influencing later psychological theories beyond the psychodynamic realm 8. The emergence of Neo-Freudians, who built upon Freud's core ideas while also introducing their own perspectives, further attests to the theory's influence 8. Furthermore, psychoanalysis has had a considerable impact on other fields such as literature, art, sociology, anthropology, and cultural studies, providing new frameworks for interpreting human behavior, motivations, and societal phenomena 1. Concepts like the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, the significance of early childhood, and dream interpretation have permeated Western culture and language, becoming integral parts of popular understanding of the human psyche 2.

Despite the emergence of other psychological perspectives, psychoanalytic theory continues to hold relevance in modern psychology, particularly in the practice of psychodynamic therapy 2. This therapeutic approach, while often adapted and modified, still utilizes many of Freud's core principles to explore how the unconscious mind influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviors 40. Psychodynamic therapy is applied in the treatment of a range of mental health issues, including anxiety disorders, depression, personality disorders, emotional struggles related to trauma, identity problems, self-esteem issues, relationship difficulties, and self-destructive behaviors 6.

7. Modern Psychoanalytic Therapy

Modern psychoanalytic therapy often employs traditional techniques such as free association, where patients are encouraged to speak freely about whatever comes to mind, and dream analysis, which is still considered a valuable tool for understanding unconscious content 5. The interpretation of transference, the patient's unconscious redirection of feelings and attitudes from past significant relationships onto the therapist, and countertransference, the therapist's emotional reactions to the patient, remains a central aspect of the therapeutic process, providing insights into the patient's relational patterns and unconscious conflicts 5. Contemporary psychoanalytic perspectives often place a greater emphasis on the therapeutic relationship itself as a crucial factor in facilitating exploration and change, allowing for the examination of recurring relational patterns in the here-and-now of the therapy session 5.

Furthermore, modern psychoanalytic thought has evolved beyond Freud's original model, with a greater focus on the self, object relations (how individuals internalize and relate to others based on early relationships), and the ego's role in regulating emotions, developing a stable sense of self, and adapting to reality 14. Modern psychoanalysis, pioneered by figures like Hyman Spotnitz, has adapted Freudian principles to specifically address narcissistic and other preoedipal disorders, often focusing on the expression and management of aggression and the development of a more cohesive and resilient ego 14. This contemporary approach recognizes that the development of a strong and well-regulated ego is crucial for mental health 47.

8. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Criticisms and Limitations

Despite its enduring influence, Freud's psychoanalytic theory has faced significant criticisms and limitations, particularly in the context of current psychological understanding 5. One of the primary criticisms revolves around the lack of empirical support and the difficulty in scientifically testing many of its core concepts 5. Concepts such as the id, ego, superego, and the libido are abstract and difficult to measure empirically, leading some to question the scientific validity of the theory 22. Philosopher Karl Popper famously considered psychoanalysis a pseudo-science because it generated hypotheses that could not be definitively refuted 38.

Another major area of criticism concerns the theory's Eurocentric and patriarchal biases, particularly evident in Freud's theories of psychosexual development and the Oedipus complex 5. The theory has been criticized for its primary focus on male development and its limited consideration of female psychosexual development 22. The application of concepts like the Oedipus complex to non-Western cultures without considering indigenous family dynamics has also been questioned 41. Furthermore, Freud's theory has been criticized for its overemphasis on sexuality as the primary driving force behind human behavior and development, potentially neglecting other important motivational factors 2.

The reliance on case studies and subjective interpretations rather than rigorous scientific methodology and controlled experimentation is another significant limitation 5. Freud's theories were largely based on his clinical observations of a limited number of patients, raising concerns about the generalizability of his findings 22. The lengthy duration, high cost, and intensive nature of traditional psychoanalysis also pose practical limitations, making it less accessible to many individuals in the modern healthcare landscape 10. Moreover, the highly individualized and subjective nature of psychoanalytic therapy makes it challenging to conduct controlled research studies to definitively validate its effectiveness, although research on short-term psychodynamic therapies has shown some promising results 37.

In response to these criticisms and the evolving landscape of psychological understanding, psychoanalytic theory has undergone significant revisions, adaptations, and integrations 8. Subsequent generations of psychoanalytic thinkers have modified and expanded upon Freud's original ideas, leading to the development of various "schools" within psychodynamic theory 8. Ego psychology, for instance, focuses more on the ego's functions in adapting to reality, while object relations theory emphasizes the importance of early relationships and the internalization of "objects" (significant others) in shaping personality 47. Relational psychoanalysis further highlights the interactive and co-constructed nature of the therapeutic relationship 41.

9. Other Psychological Approaches

Psychoanalytic concepts have also been integrated with other psychological approaches 5. Attachment theory, which examines the dynamics of early parent-child relationships and their impact on later social and emotional development, has strong roots in object relations theory 38. Even some aspects of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), while differing in their primary focus, acknowledge the influence of unconscious processes and defense mechanisms on behavior and emotions 5. The emergence of neuropsychoanalysis represents an attempt to bridge the gap between psychoanalytic theory and neuroscience by investigating the neural correlates of psychoanalytic concepts using neuroimaging techniques 38. Furthermore, the development of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies offers a more time-limited and focused approach that retains core psychoanalytic principles while being more amenable to empirical research and accessible to a wider range of individuals 38. Contemporary psychoanalytic theory and practice have also increasingly emphasized cultural sensitivity and the need to address issues of race, culture, gender, sexual orientation, and social class within the therapeutic context 41. Finally, modern psychoanalysis represents a specific adaptation of Freudian principles for the treatment of more severe personality disorders, such as narcissistic and borderline personality disorders, often focusing on the management of aggression and the development of a stable sense of self 14.

10. Conclusion: Foundational Framework in Psychology History

In conclusion, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory stands as a monumental and foundational framework in the history of psychology. Its emphasis on the unconscious mind, the structural model of the psyche comprising the id, ego, and superego, the theory of psychosexual development, and the concept of ego defense mechanisms have profoundly influenced our understanding of human behavior and mental health. While the theory has faced significant criticisms regarding its empirical support, cultural biases, and practical limitations, its historical impact on psychology, psychiatry, and related disciplines is undeniable. Moreover, psychoanalytic concepts continue to be relevant in modern psychology, particularly in the practice of psychodynamic therapy, which has adapted and evolved to address contemporary needs and challenges. The ongoing integration of psychoanalytic ideas with other psychological approaches, the emergence of interdisciplinary fields like neuropsychoanalysis, and the development of shorter-term psychodynamic therapies demonstrate the enduring influence and adaptability of Freud's foundational work in our quest to understand the complexities of the human mind."

11. Works / References Cited

1. Freud's psychoanalytic theories - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud%27s_psychoanalytic_theories

2. How Freud's Psychoanalysis Theories Shaped Modern-day Psychology - SACAP, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.sacap.edu.za/blog/applied-psychology/psychoanalysis/

3. 4.3D: Freud - Social Sci LibreTexts, accessed March 28, 2025, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Introduction_to_Sociology/Sociology_(Boundless)/04%3A_The_Role_of_Socialization/4.03%3A_Theories_of_Socialization/4.3D%3A_Freud

4. positivepsychology.com, accessed March 28, 2025, https://positivepsychology.com/psychoanalysis/#:~:text=The%20Approach%3A%20Psychoanalytic%20Perspective,-The%20psychoanalytic%20approach&text=It%20is%20built%20on%20the,get%20our%20basic%20needs%20met.

5. Psychoanalysis: A History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory - Positive Psychology, accessed March 28, 2025, https://positivepsychology.com/psychoanalysis/

6. The Basics Of Psychoanalytic Therapy - Wonder Years Psychiatric Services, accessed March 28, 2025, https://wonderyearsny.com/the-basics-of-psychoanalytic-therapy/

7. Freudian Psychology: Sigmund Freud's Theories and Ideas - Verywell Mind, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.verywellmind.com/freudian-theory-2795845

8. Psychoanalytic theory - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory

9. Psychoanalysis: Freud's Psychoanalytic Approach to Therapy - Simply Psychology, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychoanalysis.html

10. Psychoanalytic principles - Laura Gonzalez, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.lauragonzalez.co.uk/2008/10/psychoanalytic-principles/

11. Sigmund Freud in Early Childhood Education: A Practical Guide, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.earlyyears.tv/sigmund-freud-in-early-childhood-education-a-practical-guide/

12. Freudian Principles and Their Impact on Mental Health - SWEET INSTITUTE, accessed March 28, 2025, https://sweetinstitute.com/freudian-principles-and-their-impact-on-mental-health/

13. Unraveling the Human Psyche: The Impact of Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud, accessed March 28, 2025, https://achology.com/psychology/an-exploration-of-freuds-psychoanalytic-theory/

14. What is Modern Psychoanalysis?, accessed March 28, 2025, https://bgsp.edu/what-is-modern-psychoanalysis/

15. Id, Ego, and Superego - Simply Psychology, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html

16. Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud's Elements of Personality - Verywell Mind, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.verywellmind.com/the-id-ego-and-superego-2795951

17. Id, Ego, and Superego Daniel K. Lapsley and Paul C. Stey University of Notre Dame To appear in V.S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclop, accessed March 28, 2025, https://maplab.nd.edu/assets/224926/id_ego_superego_encyclopedia_of_human_behavior.pdf

18. Understanding Freud's Theory Of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego - Klarity Health Library, accessed March 28, 2025, https://my.klarity.health/understanding-freuds-theory-of-personality-id-ego-superego/

19. Psychoanalytic Terms & Concepts Defined, accessed March 28, 2025, https://apsa.org/about-psychoanalysis/psychoanalytic-terms-concepts-defined/

20. Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective | Introduction to Psychology - Lumen Learning, accessed March 28, 2025, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-intropsych/chapter/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective/

21. en.wikipedia.org, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development#:~:text=The%20five%20psychosexual%20stages%20are,stage%20can%20result%20in%20fixation.

22. Freud's Stages of Human Development: 5 Psychosexual Stages - Verywell Mind, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

23. What Are Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development? - Healthline, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.healthline.com/health/psychosexual-stages

24. Psychosexual development - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development

25. Freud's Psychosexual Theory and 5 Stages of Human Development - Simply Psychology, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

26. Freud's Developmental Theory - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557526/

27. Id, ego and superego - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_superego

28. How do the Id, Ego, and Superego Interact? (Video) - Mometrix, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.mometrix.com/academy/interaction-of-the-id-and-ego/

29. Defense Mechanisms - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/

30. An Overview Of Freud's Defense Mechanisms And How They May Show Up In Everyday Life | BetterHelp, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/defense-mechanisms/an-overview-of-freuds-defense-mechanisms-and-how-they-may-show-up-in-everyday-life/

31. Decoding the Mind: Understanding Sigmund Freud's Defense Mechanisms - Achology, accessed March 28, 2025, https://achology.com/psychology/the-impact-of-freuds-defense-mechanisms-on-behavior/

32. Defence mechanism - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism

33. 13 Types of Defense Mechanisms in Psychology (+ Examples), accessed March 28, 2025, https://positivepsychology.com/defense-mechanisms-in-psychology/

34. Top 10 Defense Mechanisms and Why We Use Them - Healthline, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/defense-mechanisms

35. Psychoanalisys - Defence mechanisms - Sigmund Freud, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.freudfile.org/psychoanalysis/defence_mecanism.html

36. Defense Mechanisms In Psychology Explained (+ Examples), accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html

37. 7 Reasons Why Psychoanalysis Is Still Relevant Today | PsychStudies.net, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.psychstudies.net/7-reasons-why-psychoanalysis-is-still-relevant-today/

38. Is Psychoanalysis Still Relevant to Psychiatry? - PMC, accessed March 28, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5459228/

39. Psychoanalysis today - PMC, accessed March 28, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1525087/

40. achology.com, accessed March 28, 2025, https://achology.com/psychology/an-exploration-of-freuds-psychoanalytic-theory/#:~:text=In%20contemporary%20psychology%2C%20the%20principles,facilitate%20psychological%20healing%20and%20growth.

41. PSYCHOANALYTIC APPLICATIONS IN A DIVERSE SOCIETY - American Psychological Association, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/pap-papa0031375.pdf

42. Modern psychoanalysis - Wikipedia, accessed March 28, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_psychoanalysis

43. Modern Psychoanalytic Guide - Sequoia Behavioral Health, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.sequoiabehavioralhealth.org/program-guides/modern-psychoanalytic-therapy-guide

44. What is Modern Psychoanalysis?, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.cmps.edu/what-is-modern-psychoanalysis

45. What is Contemporary Psychoanalysis?, accessed March 28, 2025, https://icpla.edu/what-is-contemporary-psychoanalysis/

46. Psychoanalytic Therapy: Definition, Techniques, and Efficacy - Verywell Mind, accessed March 28, 2025, https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-psychoanalytic-therapy-2795467

47. The value of contemporary psychoanalysis in conceptualizing clients, accessed March 28, 2025, https://ctarchive.counseling.org/2016/10/value-contemporary-psychoanalysis-conceptualizing-clients/

12. Report Compiler: Google Gemini (Deep Research)

13. Disclaimer

This 'The Relevance of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory ' report is based on information available at the time of its preparation and is provided for informational purposes only. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and completeness, errors and omissions may occur. The compiler of The Relevance of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory (Google Gemini Deep Research) and / or Vernon Chalmers for the Mental Health and Motivation website (in the capacity as report requester) disclaim any liability for any inaccuracies, errors, or omissions and will not be held responsible for any decisions or conclusions made based on this information."

🎓 Mental Health, Psychology and Relationship Resources

Attached Image: Created by ChatGPT